Approaches
Learning Approaches
Assumptions of the Behaviourist Approach
The behaviourist approach assumes that all behaviour is learned. Behaviourists focus only on behaviour that is observable and measurable so that it can be studied scientifically. Most research is conducted in controlled laboratory settings. Behaviourists believe that research conducted on animals is valid because animals share similar learning principles with humans. They also argue that humans are born as blank slates, meaning behaviour is not influenced by genetics.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a form of learning through association that was discovered by Pavlov in 1927. It occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly presented together. An unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned response naturally, while a neutral stimulus does not initially produce a response. When the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, it eventually produces the same response and becomes a conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response.
Learning can sometimes occur after just one pairing, such as in cases of food poisoning. If the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the response gradually weakens, which is known as extinction.
Pavlov’s Research
Pavlov demonstrated that food, which is an unconditioned stimulus, naturally produces salivation, which is an unconditioned response. When food is paired with a bell, salivation occurs. Eventually, the bell alone becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces salivation as a conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences. Positive reinforcement increases behaviour by introducing a pleasant consequence. Primary reinforcers are naturally rewarding stimuli such as food, while secondary reinforcers gain their value through association with primary reinforcers.
Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus, such as avoiding discomfort.
Punishment decreases behaviour by introducing an unpleasant consequence, which reduces the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
Skinner’s Research
Skinner conducted experiments on animals such as rats and pigeons using a device called a Skinner box. Inside the box was a lever or disc that the animal could press or peck. When the correct behaviour was performed, the animal was rewarded with food, demonstrating positive reinforcement.
Skinner also used negative reinforcement by conditioning animals to avoid unpleasant stimuli, such as electric shocks, which could be stopped when the correct action was performed.
Evaluation of Behavioural Approach
The behavioural approach has strong real-world applications. For example, treatments such as systematic desensitisation have been shown to be effective in treating phobias, and token economies are used in environments such as prisons.
However, the approach is deterministic because it suggests that behaviour is entirely controlled by reinforcement history and ignores the role of free will.
The approach is considered scientific because it relies on controlled and replicable laboratory experiments, although ethical concerns have been raised regarding animal research.
A limitation is that much of the research is conducted on animals, and this may not fully explain human behaviour because humans are more cognitively complex and influenced by social factors.
Social Learning Theory
Assumptions of Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory is based on the principles of classical and operant conditioning and uses laboratory experiments in which behaviour is observed. It suggests that individuals learn through observing others and imitating their behaviour. Learning can occur through vicarious reinforcement, where individuals observe the consequences of others’ actions.
Individuals are more likely to imitate behaviours shown by role models they identify with, such as those who share similar characteristics or are perceived as desirable.
Mediational Processes
Bandura proposed four mediational processes that occur between observing behaviour and imitating it.
1. Attention involves focusing on the role model’s behaviour.
2. Retention involves remembering what has been observed.
3. Motor reproduction refers to the ability to perform the behaviour.
4. Motivation involves the desire to imitate the behaviour, often influenced by observed rewards.
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study (1961)
Bandura found that children who observed an adult behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to behave aggressively themselves compared to those who observed non-aggressive behaviour. The study also found that children were more likely to imitate same-sex models, and boys displayed higher levels of aggression than girls.
Evaluation of Social Learning Theory
A limitation of social learning theory is that studies often focus on children and short-term effects, meaning that the long-term impact of observed behaviour is not fully understood.
A strength is that it includes cognitive processes, making it a more complete explanation than behaviourism.
However, the theory still emphasises environmental influences and may underestimate the role of innate biological factors. It also does not fully consider biological explanations for behaviours such as aggression.
Cognitive Approach
Assumptions of the Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach assumes that internal mental processes can be studied scientifically. It suggests that the mind works like a computer, processing input from the senses to produce behavioural output.
Schemas are mental representations that help individuals organise and interpret information. They allow people to process information quickly but can also lead to distorted thinking.
Cognitive psychologists use models to represent mental processes and make inferences about how these processes operate.
Evaluation of the Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach may oversimplify complex mental processes by relying on theoretical models. It may also overlook the role of emotion in behaviour.
Research is often conducted in laboratory settings, which may reduce ecological validity.
Some concepts, such as schemas, are difficult to measure scientifically. However, cognitive neuroscience has made progress in addressing this limitation.
A key strength is its practical application, particularly in the development of cognitive behavioural therapy, which is widely used in treating psychological disorders.
Biological Approach
Assumptions of the Biological Approach
The biological approach assumes that all behaviour has a physical, biological basis. It focuses on the role of genes, brain structures, and neurochemistry in influencing behaviour.
Genotype refers to an individual’s genetic makeup, whilst phenotype refers to observable characteristics influenced by both genetics and environmental factors.
Twin studies are used to investigate genetic influences by comparing concordance rates. Evolutionary theory suggests that behaviours promoting survival are passed down through natural selection.
Biochemical processes, including neurotransmitter activity, can also affect behaviour.
Cognitive Neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscience studies the biological basis of mental processes by combining cognitive and biological psychology. It uses scientific techniques such as brain scans to observe neural activity and understand how the brain supports cognition.
Evaluation of the Biological Approach
The biological approach is reductionist because it focuses only on biological explanations and ignores environmental influences.
It has strong real-world applications, particularly in the use of drug treatments for psychological disorders, although these treatments are not always effective for everyone.
Twin studies support genetic influences on behaviour, and brain imaging techniques provide objective scientific evidence.
Psychodynamic Approach
Assumptions of the Psychodynamic Approach
The psychodynamic approach suggests that behaviour is influenced by unconscious processes and early childhood experiences. It proposes that personality consists of the id, ego, and superego.
Tripartite Personality
The id is the primitive and instinctive part of the mind present from birth, and it operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of desires such as hunger and thirst.
The ego develops around the age of two and operates on the reality principle. It acts as a mediator between the id and the superego by finding realistic ways to satisfy the id’s desires.
The superego develops later in childhood and represents moral standards. It internalises the values of the same-sex parent and aims to control behaviour according to what is right and wrong.
Defence Mechanisms
Defence mechanisms are unconscious strategies used to reduce anxiety. Repression involves pushing distressing thoughts into the unconscious. Denial involves refusing to accept reality, and displacement involves transferring emotions onto a different target.
Psychosexual Stages
Freud proposed that development occurs through a series of stages, each characterised by a different focus of pleasure. Each stage involves a conflict that must be resolved. If a conflict is not resolved, fixation may occur, meaning the individual becomes stuck at that stage and carries its characteristics into adulthood.
The oral stage occurs between birth and one year. During this stage, the focus of pleasure is on the mouth, and infants gain satisfaction from sucking, feeding, and biting. The main conflict is weaning. If the child is weaned too early or too late, fixation may occur. Oral fixation in adulthood may be shown through behaviours such as smoking, nail biting, overeating, or being overly sarcastic or verbally aggressive.
The anal stage occurs between one and three years. During this stage, pleasure is focused on the anus, particularly through retaining or expelling faeces during toilet training. The main conflict is toilet training, and how parents handle this can affect personality development. If toilet training is too strict, the child may develop an anal retentive personality, characterised by being overly tidy, organised, and perfectionistic. If it is too lenient, the child may develop an anal expulsive personality, characterised by being messy, disorganised, and careless.
The phallic stage occurs between three and six years. During this stage, pleasure is focused on the genital area, and the Oedipus or Electra complex occurs. Boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother and see their father as a rival. They fear punishment from their father, which leads them to repress these feelings and identify with the father, adopting his values and forming the superego. Fixation at this stage may result in traits such as vanity, narcissism, or difficulties in relationships.
The latency stage occurs between six years and puberty. During this stage, sexual impulses are repressed, and there is no specific focus of pleasure. Energy is instead directed into developing social skills, friendships, and intellectual abilities. There is no major conflict during this stage, but fixation may result in emotional immaturity or difficulties forming relationships later in life.
The genital stage begins at puberty and continues into adulthood. During this stage, sexual impulses re-emerge, and the focus of pleasure returns to the genitals. Individuals develop mature sexual relationships and seek to form meaningful romantic connections. Successful progression through earlier stages leads to well-adjusted adults, whereas fixation in earlier stages may lead to difficulties forming healthy relationships.
Evaluation of the Psychodynamic Approach
The approach is supported by evidence from case studies, although these may lack reliability and generalisability.
It has real-world applications in therapies such as psychoanalysis, which aim to access the unconscious mind.
However, many of its concepts are difficult to test scientifically, making them unfalsifiable. It is also considered deterministic because it emphasises the role of childhood experiences.
Humanistic Psychology
Assumptions of the Humanistic Approach
The humanistic approach emphasises free will and personal responsibility. It suggests that individuals actively interpret their experiences and strive for personal growth.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow proposed that human behaviour is motivated by a hierarchy of needs, which are arranged in levels from the most basic to the most advanced. He suggested that individuals must satisfy lower-level needs before they can progress to higher-level needs.
The first level is physiological needs, which are the most basic requirements for survival. These include food, water, breathing, sleep, and maintaining body temperature. If these needs are not met, they become the primary focus of behaviour, and little attention can be given to higher-level needs.
The second level is safety needs, which include protection from danger, stability, security, and freedom from fear. This includes both physical safety, such as shelter, and psychological safety, such as financial security and health. Once physiological needs are secured, individuals are motivated to ensure they are safe and stable.
The third level is love and belonging needs. These involve forming relationships with others, including friendships, family bonds, romantic relationships, and being part of social groups or communities. Humans have a natural desire to belong and to feel accepted, and failure to meet these needs can result in loneliness and social anxiety.
The fourth level is self-esteem needs. These include both self-esteem and esteem from others. Self-esteem involves feelings of confidence, competence, and independence. Esteem from others includes recognition, respect, and status. Meeting these needs leads to feelings of accomplishment and self-worth, while failure to meet them can result in low self-esteem and feelings of inferiority.
The final level is self-actualisation, which is the highest level in the hierarchy. Self-actualisation refers to the desire to achieve one’s full potential and become the best version of oneself. This involves personal growth, creativity, and fulfilling one’s talents and abilities. Maslow believed that only a small proportion of people reach this level because it requires all other needs to be satisfied first.
Maslow also described self-actualisers as individuals who experience “peak experiences,” which are moments of intense happiness, creativity, and fulfilment. These individuals tend to have a strong sense of identity, accept themselves and others, and are motivated by personal growth rather than external rewards.
Rogers’ Self, Congruence and Conditions of Worth
Rogers suggested that individuals have a need for positive regard and self-worth. Congruence occurs when there is consistency between the self and ideal self, while incongruence occurs when there is a mismatch. Conditions of worth develop when individuals feel they are only valued under certain conditions, which can negatively affect development.
Evaluation of the Humanistic Approach
The humanistic approach is holistic and focuses on the individual as a whole. It emphasises free will and is less deterministic than other approaches.
It is considered a positive approach because it highlights human potential and personal growth.
However, it is criticised for lacking scientific evidence and for being culturally biased, as its ideas are more relevant to individualistic societies. It is also seen as overly idealistic.
Comparison of Approaches
The approaches can be compared in terms of free will versus determinism, reductionism versus holism, and nature versus nurture. The biological and behaviourist approaches tend to be deterministic and reductionist, while the humanistic approach emphasises free will and holism. The cognitive and social learning approaches adopt a more balanced position.
Many psychologists use an eclectic approach by combining elements from different perspectives. For example, the diathesis-stress model suggests that behaviour results from a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental triggers.
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