Clinical Psychology & Mental Health

Definitions in the Field of Mental Health

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

Deviation from ideal mental health judges mental health in a similar way to physical health, suggesting that a person must meet certain criteria to be considered mentally healthy. Jahoda (1958) identified six characteristics, and the absence of these may indicate abnormality.

A person should have a positive view of themselves, meaning they possess high self-esteem. They should also demonstrate self-actualisation by focusing on personal growth and achieving goals.

They should display autonomy, meaning they can function independently without relying on others. They should also show resistance to stress, meaning they can cope with difficult situations effectively.

Environmental mastery is another characteristic, where a person can adapt to new situations. Finally, a person should have an accurate perception of reality, meaning they see the world as others do.

Evaluation of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

One limitation is that the criteria are unrealistic, as many people would struggle to meet all of these characteristics at the same time. This makes it difficult to determine when someone should be considered abnormal.

Another limitation is that the definition is culturally biased, as some characteristics, such as self-actualisation, reflect Western values and may not apply to other cultures.

A strength is that the definition takes a positive approach to mental health, helping to reduce stigma by comparing mental health to physical health.

Deviation from Social and Cultural Norms

Deviation from social and cultural norms defines abnormality as behaviour that differs from the accepted standards within a society. Social norms are unwritten rules about behaviour based on cultural expectations.

For example, behaviours such as not queuing or failing to say “please” and “thank you” may be considered abnormal.

Evaluation of Deviation from Social and Cultural Norms

One limitation is that this definition is culturally relative, as behaviours considered abnormal in one culture may be acceptable in another.

Another limitation is that norms change over time, meaning what is considered abnormal today may not have been considered abnormal in the past.

A further limitation is that context is important, as behaviour that is acceptable in one situation may not be acceptable in another.

Failure to Function Adequately

Failure to function adequately occurs when a person is unable to cope with the demands of everyday life. This may include difficulties maintaining hygiene, employment, or relationships.

Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) proposed several features of failing to function adequately. These include suffering, where the person experiences psychological distress.

Maladaptiveness refers to behaviour that interferes with personal wellbeing. Irrationality refers to behaviour that lacks logic or reason.

Observer discomfort occurs when behaviour causes unease in others. Vividness refers to behaviour that is unusual or extreme.

Violation of moral standards involves behaviour that goes against social rules, and unpredictability refers to behaviour that is erratic or unexpected.

Evaluation of Failure to Function Adequately

One limitation is that economic conditions may affect a person’s ability to cope, such as unemployment, which may not reflect abnormality.

Another limitation is cultural relativism, as behaviours seen as irrational in one culture may be acceptable in another.

A further limitation is that people who choose alternative lifestyles may be incorrectly labelled as abnormal.

Statistical Infrequency

Statistical infrequency defines abnormality as behaviour that is rare or unusual. Behaviours that are more than two standard deviations from the mean are considered abnormal, meaning they occur in less than five percent of the population.

Evaluation of Statistical Infrequency

One limitation is that some rare behaviours, such as high intelligence, are not considered abnormal.

Another limitation is that some disorders may appear rare because they are underreported in certain cultures.

A strength is that this definition has practical application in diagnosis, as it is used in psychological assessments such as depression inventories.

 

Characteristics of Phobias, Depression and OCD

Phobias

The behavioural characteristics of phobias include panic responses such as crying, screaming, running away, or freezing. Individuals may also show avoidance behaviours, where they attempt to avoid the phobic stimulus. In some cases, they may endure situations but experience extreme anxiety.

The emotional characteristics include intense fear and high levels of anxiety, which prevent relaxation and positive emotions.

The cognitive characteristics include irrational thinking, where individuals recognise that their fear is excessive but cannot control it. They may also display selective attention, focusing only on the feared stimulus.

Depression

The behavioural characteristics of depression include low energy levels, withdrawal from social activities, and disruptions to sleep and appetite. Some individuals may also display aggression or self-harming behaviour.

The emotional characteristics include a persistent low mood, feelings of worthlessness, anger, and low self-esteem.

The cognitive characteristics include poor concentration, a tendency to focus on negative aspects of situations, and a bias towards recalling negative events.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

The behavioural characteristics of OCD include compulsions, which are repetitive behaviours performed to reduce anxiety.

The emotional characteristics include anxiety, as well as feelings of guilt or disgust. Compulsions may provide only temporary relief.

The cognitive characteristics include obsessions, which are intrusive and recurring thoughts. Individuals may also engage in coping strategies, such as praying, and display selective attention towards anxiety-provoking stimuli.

 

Phobias

Behavioural Approach to Explaining Phobias

The two-process model (Mowrer, 1960) explains phobias through classical and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning involves learning through association. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus that produces fear, resulting in a conditioned fear response.

Operant conditioning maintains the phobia through negative reinforcement. Avoiding the feared stimulus reduces anxiety, reinforcing the avoidance behaviour.

Evaluation of the Behavioural Approach

A limitation is that biological preparedness suggests that humans are naturally predisposed to fear certain stimuli, meaning phobias do not always arise from conditioning.

Another limitation is that not all phobias are linked to traumatic experiences, as some individuals develop phobias without a clear cause.

A strength is that the model has led to effective treatments for phobias.

Behavioural Approach to Treating Phobias

Systematic desensitisation involves gradually exposing the individual to the feared stimulus while teaching relaxation techniques. The individual works through a hierarchy of fear, progressing only when they can remain calm.

Flooding involves exposing the individual to the feared stimulus in its most extreme form for a prolonged period, allowing anxiety to decrease naturally.

Evaluation of Behavioural Treatments

A strength is that systematic desensitisation is effective in treating phobias.

A limitation is that flooding can be highly distressing and raises ethical concerns.

A strength is that systematic desensitisation can be cost-effective, particularly when self-administered.

 

Depression

Cognitive Approach to Explaining Depression

Beck’s negative triad suggests that depression is maintained by negative views of the self, the world, and the future.

Faulty information processing causes individuals to focus on negative information while ignoring positives.

Negative self-schemas lead individuals to interpret information negatively.

Ellis’s ABC model explains depression as resulting from irrational beliefs following an activating event, leading to negative consequences.

Evaluation of the Cognitive Approach

A strength is that it has led to useful applications such as cognitive therapies.

Supporting research shows that individuals with depression tend to interpret events negatively.

A limitation is that the approach may place blame on the individual for their condition.

Cognitive Approach to Treating Depression

Beck’s cognitive therapy aims to identify and challenge negative beliefs. Individuals may complete tasks such as recording positive experiences.

Ellis’s approach involves disputing irrational thoughts and replacing them with more rational beliefs using techniques such as logical and empirical disputing.

Evaluation of Cognitive Treatments

A strength is that cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is effective and can be as effective as drug treatments.

A limitation is that therapy can be time-consuming and expensive, and relapse rates can be high.

Another limitation is that it may not be suitable for severe cases, where medication may be needed first.

 

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Biological Approach to Explaining OCD

Genetic explanations suggest that OCD can be inherited, as shown by family studies. Specific genes, such as the COMT and SERT genes, are linked to neurotransmitter regulation.

Neural explanations suggest that abnormal levels of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and serotonin, are associated with OCD. Abnormal functioning of brain areas such as the basal ganglia and caudate nucleus may also contribute.

Evaluation of the Biological Approach

Twin studies support the role of genetics, as identical twins show higher concordance rates than non-identical twins.

However, concordance rates are not 100 percent, suggesting that environmental factors also play a role.

Animal studies provide further support for the biological explanation.

Biological Approach to Treating OCD

Drug therapies are commonly used to treat OCD. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) increase levels of serotonin in the brain, reducing symptoms.

If SSRIs are ineffective, other drugs such as tricyclics or SNRIs may be used.

SSRIs work by preventing the reabsorption of serotonin, increasing its availability in the synapse.

Evaluation of Biological Treatments

A strength is that drug therapies have been shown to be effective in reducing symptoms.

A limitation is that they can cause side effects, which may lead individuals to stop taking the medication.

A strength is that drug treatments are cost-effective compared to psychological therapies. However, they often only treat symptoms rather than underlying causes.