Gender
The Role of Chromosomes and Hormones
Chromosomes
Egg cells carry the X chromosome and sperm cells carry either an X or a Y chromosome. The sex of the baby is determined by which sperm fertilises the egg. If the sperm carries a Y chromosome, the SRY gene located on the Y chromosome is activated. This gene produces androgens, which are male sex hormones, and causes the development of testes.
Hormones
Hormones play a key role in gender development throughout life. During prenatal development, hormones influence the development of the brain and reproductive organs. At puberty, hormones are responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics, such as body hair.
Testosterone is a hormone that is produced in higher amounts in males and is responsible for the development of male sex organs. It is also associated with increased levels of aggression.
Oestrogen is a hormone that regulates female sexual characteristics and the menstrual cycle. It can also influence mood, particularly during menstruation.
Oxytocin is a hormone that is released in higher levels in women, especially after childbirth. It promotes bonding between mother and baby by reducing stress and stimulating lactation.
Sex refers to the biological classification of individuals based on chromosomal patterns, hormone profiles, and physical anatomy.
Evaluation of the Role of Chromosomes and Hormones
Gender roles may be influenced by social factors rather than purely biological factors. In individualist cultures, traits such as independence and competition are valued, which are often associated with masculinity.
There is support for the role of testosterone, as research has shown that testosterone therapy in males with low levels improves mood, sexual function, and physical development.
However, biological explanations are reductionist because they fail to consider other factors such as cognitive processes or social influences.
Research has also shown that chromosomes may directly influence brain development, as studies with genetically altered mice demonstrated brain differences independent of gonads.
Diversity in Sex Development
Klinefelter’s Syndrome
Klinefelter’s syndrome affects biological males who have an extra X chromosome, resulting in an XXY chromosomal pattern. Many individuals are unaware they have this condition.
Physical characteristics include reduced body hair, some breast development, long limbs, undeveloped genitals, and coordination difficulties. Psychological characteristics include poor language skills, poor reading ability, shyness, passivity, and reduced interest in sexual activity.
Turner’s Syndrome
Turner’s syndrome affects biological females who have only one X chromosome, resulting in an X0 chromosomal pattern. Individuals have only 45 chromosomes instead of the typical 46.
Physical characteristics include lack of menstrual cycle, infertility due to undeveloped ovaries, a broad chest, low-set ears, and a webbed neck. Psychological characteristics include strong reading ability but poor spatial and mathematical skills and social immaturity.
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
Androgen insensitivity syndrome occurs due to a mutation on the X chromosome that prevents the body from responding to androgens. Individuals with complete AIS develop female external genitalia, but internal testes are present.
The brain is feminised, pubic hair is limited, and breast tissue develops due to the conversion of testosterone into oestrogen. Partial AIS results in ambiguous genitalia.
Evaluation of Diversity in Sex Development
Cases may present exaggerated characteristics because milder forms are often undiagnosed. Research has found that many individuals with these conditions function normally.
There are real-world applications, as early diagnosis can allow treatment such as hormone therapy or medical intervention.
Studying these conditions helps researchers understand the relative contributions of nature and nurture to behaviour.
Research has shown that brain activation patterns in individuals with AIS resemble those of females, suggesting biological influences on gendered behaviour.
Gender Identities
The Gender Binary
The gender binary categorises gender into two distinct categories of male and female. Gender identity is assumed to match biological sex, and traditional gender roles are assigned based on this classification. Individuals whose gender identity matches their biological sex are described as cisgender.
Non-Binary Identity
Non-binary individuals do not identify strictly as male or female. They may identify as being between genders, outside of both genders, or having no gender at all. They may use pronouns such as they or them.
Gender Fluidity
Gender fluidity refers to a changing gender identity over time. Individuals may identify with different genders at different points in their lives.
Evaluation of Gender Identities
There is biological support for gender differences, as research has shown structural differences in brain regions between males and females.
However, individuals with intersex conditions challenge the idea of a strict gender binary.
The gender similarity hypothesis suggests that differences between men and women are small and that many traits overlap, indicating that gender is not entirely binary.
Measuring Gender
Bem’s Sex Role Inventory
Androgyny refers to a balance of masculine and feminine traits within an individual. Individuals who are androgynous are believed to have better psychological well-being because they can adapt to different situations.
The Bem Sex Role Inventory measures levels of masculinity and femininity by asking participants to rate characteristics on a scale. Based on their scores, individuals are classified as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated.
Evaluation of Bem’s Sex Role Inventory
Research has shown that individuals who score highly on androgyny tend to have better mental health and self-esteem.
The inventory has high reliability, as it produces consistent results over time.
However, it may be culturally biased, as the traits considered masculine or feminine are based on Western values and may not apply to other cultures.
Biological Explanations of Gender Development
The Role of Chromosomes
The presence or absence of genes such as the SRY gene influences the development of external genitalia, which in turn affects how individuals are socialised into gender roles.
The Gendered Brain
Prenatal hormones influence brain development, resulting in structural and functional differences between male and female brains. Differences have been observed in regions such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and insula.
Research has found that males and females show different brain activity when processing emotional or sexual stimuli.
The Role of Hormones
High levels of testosterone during prenatal development are associated with more masculine behaviour in females.
Oestrogen regulates female physical development and can influence mood.
Oxytocin promotes bonding and may lead to a “tend and befriend” response in women.
Evaluation of Biological Explanations
The case of David Reimer suggests that biological factors may override social influences, as he reverted to a male identity despite being raised as a female.
However, research suggests that brain development is influenced by environmental factors, and differences between male and female brains are small.
Research has found correlations between testosterone levels and aggression, supporting the role of hormones in behaviour.
Studies of individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia suggest that prenatal hormones influence gendered behaviour.
Cognitive Explanations of Gender Development
Kohlberg’s Theory
Kohlberg proposed that children acquire gender identity in stages as their cognitive abilities develop.
At the gender identity stage, children recognise whether they are male or female but do not see gender as stable.
At the gender stability stage, children understand that gender remains constant over time but may believe it can change across situations.
At the gender constancy stage, children recognise that gender is fixed and begin to adopt behaviours associated with their gender.
Evaluation of Kohlberg’s Theory
Research suggests that children may understand gender earlier than Kohlberg proposed, indicating methodological issues.
Some children reach gender constancy earlier due to increased exposure to information.
There is evidence supporting the stages, as younger children often show confusion about gender stability.
Gender Schema Theory
Gender schemas are mental frameworks that help children organise information about gender.
Children develop schemas based on stereotypes and use them to interpret new information. They are more likely to remember information that fits their schema and ignore information that does not.
Schemas become more complex over time, allowing children to understand both their own gender and others.
Evaluation of Gender Schema Theory
Research has shown that children remember gender-consistent information better than inconsistent information.
Some evidence suggests children develop gender identity earlier than proposed.
The theory explains cultural differences in gender behaviour, as schemas are influenced by cultural experience.
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory explains gender development as a result of observing and imitating role models.
Children learn gender-appropriate behaviour through direct reinforcement, where behaviour is rewarded, and vicarious reinforcement, where they observe others being rewarded.
Mediational processes are involved, including attention, retention, motivation, and motor reproduction.
Children may also learn through direct tuition, where they are explicitly told about gender roles.
Once behaviours are internalised, children regulate their own behaviour without external reinforcement.
Evaluation of Social Learning Theory
The theory explains changes in gender roles over time, which biological explanations cannot easily account for.
There is research support showing that adults respond differently to children based on perceived gender.
However, the theory does not explain how learning changes with age and does not consider cognitive development.
Research shows that direct instruction may be more influential than observation alone.
The Influence of Culture and Media
Culture
Culture suggests that if gender-role behaviour is consistent across different cultures, then it is likely to be an innate biological difference.
Mead found that different cultural groups in Papua New Guinea displayed different gender stereotypes, which supports the idea that gender roles are shaped by cultural influences rather than being entirely biological.
In contrast, Buss found that mate preferences were consistent across 37 countries, suggesting that some differences between males and females may be biological in origin rather than purely cultural.
Media
Media provides role models that children can observe and imitate, which links to social learning theory. Gender stereotypes presented in the media are often traditional, with men portrayed as independent and ambitious, and women portrayed as dependent and unambitious.
Research has shown that in advertisements, men are often shown in professional settings, while women are more commonly shown in domestic or family roles. This reinforces gender stereotypes.
Seeing someone of the same gender performing gender-appropriate behaviours can increase a child’s belief in their own ability to perform those behaviours, which is known as self-efficacy.
Evaluation of Culture and Media
Mead’s research has been criticised for lack of validity, as she may have been misled by participants and had pre-existing expectations, which introduces observer bias and ethnocentrism.
Cultivation theory suggests that the more time people spend exposed to media, the more they believe it reflects reality. Research has found a positive correlation between media exposure and attitudes towards gendered behaviour, suggesting media can influence behaviour.
However, the media may act as a secondary influence, as children are more likely to adopt gender stereotypes that already match those learned from their family, rather than forming entirely new ones.
Gender Incongruence
Gender incongruence occurs when there is a mismatch between an individual’s gender identity and their biological sex. This can cause distress, known as gender dysphoria.
Biological Explanations
Research found that the DNA of trans women had a longer version of the androgen receptor gene. This reduces the action of testosterone and may result in the brain being under-masculinised during development in the womb.
The brain-sex theory focuses on the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTc), which is involved in emotional processing and sexual behaviour. This structure is typically larger in males than females. Research has found that trans women have a BSTc similar in size to cisgender women, while trans men are similar to cisgender men.
Cross-wiring theory suggests that there is a mismatch between the brain’s representation of the body and the physical sex characteristics. This is similar to phantom limb syndrome. It has been estimated that a large proportion of trans men report sensations of a phantom penis during childhood, which supports this explanation.
Evaluation of Biological Explanations
Evidence for genetic explanations is inconsistent, as some studies have failed to replicate findings relating to the androgen receptor gene. This suggests that focusing on a single gene may be too simplistic.
Criticism of the BSTc explanation highlights that differences in this brain region do not appear until adulthood, whereas many individuals report feelings of incongruence in early childhood. This suggests the brain differences may be a result rather than a cause.
There is support for the cross-wiring explanation, as many trans individuals report phantom sensations, suggesting a biological mismatch rather than a learned behaviour.
Social and Cultural Explanations
Social constructivism suggests that gender is shaped by social and cultural influences. Gender categories such as “male” and “female” are created and maintained by society rather than being purely biological.
Gender incongruence may occur because individuals are forced to conform to rigid gender categories, which do not reflect their identity. This suggests that gender dysphoria is not a pathological condition but a result of social expectations.
Evaluation of Social and Cultural Explanations
Cross-cultural evidence supports this explanation, as some cultures recognise more than two genders. This suggests that gender categories are socially constructed rather than biologically determined.
Research into gender incongruence is socially sensitive and can have political and ethical implications. Identifying biological causes may increase acceptance, but it may also suggest that gender incongruence requires scientific validation.
Changes to diagnostic criteria, such as those in the DSM, mean that only individuals who experience distress are classified as having a condition. This has implications for access to treatment, as individuals may need to be pathologised to receive medical support.
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