Relationships

 

Factors Affecting Attraction

Self-Disclosure

Self-disclosure involves revealing personal information about yourself to another person. In romantic relationships, partners gradually reveal more about their true selves as the relationship develops. These revelations strengthen the relationship when they are used appropriately.

Social penetration theory explains self-disclosure as a gradual process of revealing personal information. This involves a reciprocal exchange, meaning both partners take turns disclosing information. As disclosure increases, individuals penetrate deeper into each other’s lives, which can be compared to peeling layers of an onion.

Breadth and depth refer to how self-disclosure develops. Breadth refers to the range of topics discussed, while depth refers to how personal or intimate the information is. As trust develops, partners move from revealing low-risk information, which could be shared with anyone, to high-risk, more personal and intimate information.

Reciprocity means that both partners must respond to disclosure by sharing their own personal information. There must be a balance of self-disclosure in order for the relationship to develop successfully.

Evaluation of Self-Disclosure

Research has found a positive correlation between self-disclosure and relationship satisfaction in heterosexual couples, suggesting that greater disclosure is linked to more satisfying relationships.

Cultural differences exist in self-disclosure. Tang et al. found that sexual self-disclosure is higher in the USA compared to China, but in both cultures higher disclosure is linked to greater satisfaction.

Duck suggests that self-disclosure plays a role in relationship breakdown, as partners communicate their thoughts and feelings when negotiating the state of the relationship, although this does not always prevent breakdown.

Physical Attractiveness

Physical attractiveness plays a role in attraction, with symmetrical faces being considered more attractive across cultures because they signal genetic fitness. Features such as neotenous characteristics, which are baby-like features, are also considered attractive because they trigger caring instincts.

The matching hypothesis suggests that individuals assess their own level of attractiveness and choose partners who are similar in attractiveness. This involves balancing the desire for the most attractive partner with the risk that they may be out of one’s league.

The halo effect occurs when one positive characteristic, such as physical attractiveness, influences our judgement of other traits. Attractive individuals are often perceived as kinder, more successful, and more socially competent.

Evaluation of Physical Attractiveness

Research by Taylor et al. found that individuals using online dating sites often seek partners who are more attractive than themselves, contradicting the matching hypothesis.

The halo effect has been supported in everyday situations, with research showing that attractive individuals are perceived as more competent and knowledgeable.

A meta-analysis by Feingold found a positive correlation in attractiveness ratings between romantic partners, providing support for the matching hypothesis.

Filter Theory

Filter theory explains how relationships develop by narrowing down potential partners. Initially, all possible partners are part of a field of availables. Through a series of filters, individuals narrow this down to a field of desirables.

The first filter is social demography, which includes factors such as geographical proximity, social class, education, and ethnicity. These factors limit the range of potential partners, meaning individuals are likely to form relationships with those who are similar, known as homogamy.

The second filter is similarity in attitudes. Shared beliefs and values encourage interaction and communication, which promotes self-disclosure. This factor is particularly important in short-term relationships.

The third filter is complementarity, which refers to partners having traits that complement each other, forming a balanced relationship. This is more important in long-term relationships.

Evaluation of Filter Theory

Research has struggled to replicate the original findings, partly due to social changes and difficulties in defining relationship length.

Filter theory may lack temporal validity because modern technology, such as online dating, allows individuals to meet people outside their usual demographic range.

Research suggests that partners may become more similar over time, indicating that similarity may be a result of relationships rather than a cause.

 

Theories of Romantic Relationships

Social Exchange Theory

Social exchange theory suggests that relationships are formed and maintained based on a cost-benefit analysis. Individuals aim to maximise rewards, such as companionship and emotional support, while minimising costs, such as conflict or time commitment.

The outcome of a relationship is determined by subtracting costs from rewards. If the outcome is positive, individuals are more likely to remain in the relationship.

The comparison level refers to the expected level of reward based on past experiences and social norms. Individuals with low self-esteem may have a lower comparison level and accept less rewarding relationships.

The comparison level for alternatives refers to the perceived value of alternative relationships. If an alternative offers greater rewards, individuals may leave their current relationship.

Relationships progress through four stages, including sampling, where individuals explore potential rewards and costs, bargaining, where partners negotiate the relationship, commitment, where rewards stabilise, and institutionalisation, where the relationship becomes established.

Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory

The theory ignores the concept of equity and fairness, focusing only on profit.

Research suggests that individuals only consider alternative relationships when they are dissatisfied, rather than constantly analysing costs and benefits.

The theory has been applied to explain why individuals remain in abusive relationships when investments are high and alternatives are limited.

Equity Theory

Equity theory extends social exchange theory by suggesting that relationships should be fair rather than simply profitable. Partners aim to achieve equality in the distribution of rewards and costs.

Inequality occurs when one partner overbenefits and the other underbenefits, leading to dissatisfaction. There is a positive correlation between perceived inequity and dissatisfaction.

Partners may attempt to restore equity by changing their behaviour or by adjusting their perception of fairness.

Evaluation of Equity Theory

Research has found that relationships perceived as equitable are more satisfying.

Cultural differences suggest that equity is not equally valued in all cultures, with collectivist cultures favouring overbenefiting relationships.

Individual differences also exist, as some individuals prefer to give more or receive more, rather than maintain equality.

Investment Model

The investment model suggests that commitment to a relationship depends on satisfaction, comparison with alternatives, and investment.

Satisfaction refers to the level of rewards compared to expectations.

Alternatives refer to the perceived attractiveness of other options.

Investment includes resources that would be lost if the relationship ended, such as time, money, shared possessions, or emotional commitment.

Commitment leads to maintenance behaviours, such as prioritising the partner and maintaining a positive perception of the relationship.

Evaluation of Investment Model

Research has shown that satisfaction, alternatives, and investment all influence commitment.

The model has been used to explain persistence in abusive relationships where investment is high.

However, the model may be oversimplified, as additional factors such as future plans may also influence commitment.

Duck’s Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown

Duck proposed that relationship breakdown occurs in stages, each marked by a threshold.

The intra-psychic stage involves internal dissatisfaction, where individuals consider the costs and benefits of the relationship. The threshold is reached when the individual feels they can no longer tolerate the relationship.

The dyadic stage involves discussing dissatisfaction with the partner, often leading to conflict. The threshold is reached when the individual feels justified in ending the relationship.

The social stage involves making the breakup public and seeking support from others. The threshold is reached when the individual commits to ending the relationship.

The grave-dressing stage involves creating a narrative about the relationship to make sense of the breakup and protect self-image.

Evaluation of Duck's Phase Model

The model may be incomplete, as later research added a resurrection stage where individuals prepare for future relationships.

It has practical applications, as understanding stages can help in counselling.

However, research relies on retrospective accounts, which may be unreliable.

 

Online Relationships

Self-Disclosure

The reduced cues theory suggests that online communication lacks non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions and tone of voice. This can lead to deindividuation, where individuals lose their sense of identity and behave more aggressively or bluntly, reducing self-disclosure.

The hyperpersonal model suggests that online relationships are more personal and involve greater self-disclosure. Individuals can carefully control their self-presentation and portray themselves positively, which increases intimacy. However, this may lead to relationships developing quickly and ending quickly.

Effects of Absence of Gating

Gates refer to barriers, such as physical unattractiveness or social anxiety, that may prevent relationship formation in face-to-face interactions. Online communication removes these gates, allowing relationships to develop more easily.

However, the absence of gating also allows individuals to misrepresent themselves.

Use of Deception

Online environments allow individuals to deceive others about aspects such as appearance, age, or identity. This can affect the development and stability of relationships.

Evaluation of Online Relationships

Research suggests that online communication uses different types of cues, such as emojis or response times, to convey meaning.

Online and offline relationships often overlap, with online interactions supporting real-world relationships.

Research has shown that online communication may involve more direct and personal self-disclosure compared to face-to-face interactions.

 

Parasocial Relationships

Levels of Parasocial Relationships

Parasocial relationships are one-sided relationships where an individual knows a great deal about a person, typically a celebrity, but the other person does not know they exist.

The entertainment-social level involves using celebrities for entertainment and social conversation.

The intense-personal level involves strong emotional attachment and obsessive thoughts about a celebrity.

The borderline-pathological level involves uncontrollable behaviours, such as stalking or extreme fantasies.

Absorption Addiction Model

This model suggests that parasocial relationships develop because individuals seek to escape from reality.

Absorption involves becoming deeply involved with a celebrity, while addiction involves increasingly extreme behaviours to maintain the connection.

Attachment Theory Explanation

Attachment theory suggests that individuals with insecure attachment types are more likely to form parasocial relationships because these relationships do not involve rejection or demands.

Evaluation of Parasocial Relationships

Research suggests that parasocial relationships may be universal across cultures, indicating evolutionary influences.

Personality traits are associated with different levels of celebrity worship, linking parasocial relationships to psychological characteristics.

Research has also suggested that parasocial relationships may negatively impact body image, particularly in adolescents.