Stress
The Physiology of Stress
General Adaptation Syndrome
Stress is the body’s attempt to adapt to a stressor, as proposed by Selye (1936). This response occurs in three stages.
1. The alarm reaction stage is when the body initially enters shock, briefly reducing resources, before activating the fight or flight response.
2. The resistance stage occurs when the body attempts to cope with the stressor. The parasympathetic nervous system works to conserve energy as the stress becomes prolonged.
3. The exhaustion stage occurs when the body’s resources become depleted. Resistance to stress decreases, and this can lead to illness, such as cardiovascular disease, due to damage to the immune system and adrenal glands.
Acute Stress: Sympathomedullary Pathway
When a stressor is perceived, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system. This stimulates the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline and noradrenaline, increasing heart rate and preparing the body for fight or flight.
After the stressor has passed, the parasympathetic nervous system restores the body to its normal state.
Chronic Stress: Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal System
In response to prolonged stress, the hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-releasing factor, which stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone.
This hormone triggers the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. Cortisol increases energy availability but can weaken the immune system over time.
Evaluation of General Adaption Syndrome
A limitation is that the model is too general. Mason (1971) found that cortisol levels varied depending on the type of stressor, suggesting the response is not the same for all stressors.
Psychological factors also influence stress. Speisman et al. (1964) showed that how individuals interpret a situation affects their stress response, which is not explained by purely physiological models.
There are real-world applications. Cortisol replacement therapy has been used to treat conditions such as Addison’s disease, demonstrating the importance of understanding stress physiology.
The Role of Stress in Illness
Immunosuppression
Stress weakens the immune system. Kiecolt-Glaser et al. found that medical students had reduced immune functioning during exam periods compared to before exams.
Caregivers of individuals with Alzheimer’s also showed weaker immune responses and higher rates of illness and depression.
Cardiovascular Disorders
Acute stress can increase the risk of heart attacks. Wilbert-Lampen et al. (2008) found increased cardiac emergencies during stressful football matches.
Chronic stress is also linked to heart disease. Yusuf et al. (2004) found that workplace stress and life events were associated with heart attacks across multiple countries.
Evaluation of the Role of Stress in Illness
The effects of stress are complex. Dharbhar (2008) found that acute stress can temporarily improve immune function, suggesting different effects depending on stress duration.
Stress may have indirect effects. Orth-Gomer et al. (2000) found that stress increased heart attack risk mainly in individuals already vulnerable, suggesting lifestyle factors play a role.
There are applications for stress management. Kiecolt-Glaser and Glaser (1992) showed that relaxation training improved immune functioning in students.
Sources of Stress
Life Changes
Life changes are major events that require individuals to adjust their lives, such as marriage or divorce. Holmes and Rahe (1967) developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale, which assigned life change units to different events based on the amount of adjustment required.
Higher scores are associated with a greater likelihood of illness. Rahe et al. (1970) found a positive correlation between life change scores and illness in naval personnel, showing that more life changes were linked to poorer health.
Evaluation of Life Changes
Life changes are subjective, meaning individuals may interpret the same event differently. Byrne and Whyte (1980) found that taking personal interpretations into account improved prediction of illness.
There is research support, as Lietzen et al. (2011) found that high levels of life changes predicted the onset of asthma.
However, life changes may not be the best predictor of stress, as they occur infrequently and may lead to stress indirectly through daily hassles.
Daily Hassles
Daily hassles are minor but frequent events, such as arguments or minor frustrations, which can accumulate over time.
Lazarus suggested that stress depends on primary appraisal, where individuals evaluate how threatening a situation is, and secondary appraisal, where they assess their ability to cope.
Kanner et al. (1970) found that daily hassles were more strongly correlated with psychological ill-health than life changes, suggesting they are a better predictor of stress.
Evaluation of Daily Hassles
There is supporting evidence. Ivancevich (1986) found that daily hassles are associated with poor health and reduced job performance.
The explanation accounts for individual differences, as people interpret hassles differently.
However, research often relies on retrospective self-report, which may reduce validity as minor events are difficult to recall accurately.
Correlational findings mean that cause and effect cannot be determined, as stress may influence how individuals perceive hassles.
Workplace Stress
Karasek’s job demands–control model suggests that high workload increases stress, but having control over work can reduce its effects.
Bosma et al. (1997) found that low control was associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease, regardless of workload.
Johansson et al. (1978) found that workers with low control had higher levels of stress hormones and more illness, supporting the model.
Evaluation of Workplace Stress
There are cultural differences, as Gyorkos et al. (2012) found that lack of control is less stressful in collectivist cultures.
Individual differences are important. Meier et al. (2008) found that people with low self-efficacy find control more stressful.
The model may be too simplistic, as it focuses only on workload and control, while ignoring other factors that contribute to stress.
Measuring Stress
Self-Report Measures
Self-report measures assess stress by asking individuals to report their experiences.
The Social Readjustment Rating Scale, developed by Holmes and Rahe (1967), measures life changes by assigning life change units to different events. Individuals indicate which events they have experienced, and the total score predicts stress-related illness.
The Hassles and Uplifts Scale measures the frequency and severity of daily hassles and positive experiences. It assesses stress more continuously than life change measures.
Physiological Measures
Physiological measures assess stress by recording bodily responses.
Skin conductance response measures sweating through electrical conductivity of the skin. Increased sweating indicates higher stress levels.
This is often used alongside other measures such as heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure, for example in a polygraph test.
Evaluation of Measuring Stress
Self-report measures may lack validity because individuals interpret events differently. For example, what is considered a serious life event can vary between people.
There is a contamination effect because some items included in scales, such as illness, are both causes and effects of stress.
Physiological measures are more objective, but individual differences in baseline levels, such as differences in skin conductance, may reduce reliability.
Individual Differences in Stress
Personality Types
Type A individuals are characterised by competitiveness, hostility, and time urgency, while Type B individuals are more relaxed and less competitive.
Friedman and Rosenman (1959) found that individuals with Type A personality were more likely to develop coronary heart disease, suggesting they are more vulnerable to stress.
Type C individuals are passive and suppress emotions. This has been linked to cancer, as Dattore et al. (1980) found higher levels of emotional repression in individuals with cancer compared to controls.
Evaluation of Personality Types
There is gender bias in research, as early studies focused mainly on men, limiting generalisability.
Findings linking suppressed emotions to illness are inconsistent, meaning the relationship is not clearly established.
Type A personality may be too broad, with later research suggesting hostility is the key factor, such as Carmelli et al. (1991).
Hardiness
Hardiness is a personality trait that enables individuals to cope effectively with stress. It includes commitment, challenge, and control.
Commitment involves being actively engaged in life, challenge involves seeing change as an opportunity, and control involves believing you can influence events.
Kobasa (1979) found that individuals high in hardiness experienced less illness under stress, and Maddi (1987) found that hardy individuals coped better with workplace stress.
Evaluation of Hardiness
Hardiness has real-world applications, such as selecting individuals for high-stress jobs like the military.
Contrada (1989) found that individuals high in hardiness showed lower physiological stress responses.
However, the concept may be too broad, as researchers disagree on which components are most important.
It is possible that hardy individuals engage in healthier behaviours, meaning reduced stress may be due to lifestyle rather than personality alone.
Managing and Coping with Stress
Drug Therapy
Drug therapy reduces the physiological symptoms of stress.
Benzodiazepines increase the activity of GABA, which inhibits neural activity and reduces anxiety.
Beta blockers reduce physical symptoms by blocking the effects of adrenaline, lowering heart rate and blood pressure.
Evaluation of Drug Therapy
Baldwin et al. (2013) found benzodiazepines are more effective than placebos.
Kelly (1980) found beta blockers reduce anxiety.
However, drug therapy treats symptoms rather than underlying causes of stress.
Side effects can include dependency, drowsiness, and reduced heart rate, which limits long-term use.
Stress Inoculation Therapy
Stress inoculation therapy is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy that helps individuals cope with stress.
It involves three stages: conceptualisation, where individuals identify stressors; skills training, where coping strategies are learned; and application, where these skills are used in real-life situations.
Evaluation of Stress Inoculation Therapy
SIT can be effective for a range of individuals. Saunders et al. (1996) found it reduces anxiety in stressful situations.
However, it requires time, effort, and motivation, meaning some individuals may not complete the therapy.
It may also be less effective when individuals have little control over their stressors.
Biofeedback
Biofeedback involves monitoring physiological responses and using feedback to gain control over them.
Individuals learn awareness of their responses, practise controlling them through relaxation techniques, and then apply this control in real-life situations.
Davis (1970) found that biofeedback reduced cortisol levels and anxiety.
Evaluation of Biodfeedback
Biofeedback may work because of relaxation techniques rather than the feedback itself.
It is practical and accessible, as modern devices are small and easy to use.
There is research support showing reduced stress levels in individuals using biofeedback compared to controls.
Gender Differences in Coping with Stress
Women are more likely to use emotion-focused coping strategies, such as avoidance and seeking support, while men are more likely to use problem-focused coping strategies.
The tend-and-befriend response suggests that women cope with stress by caring for others and seeking social support.
Oxytocin is thought to reduce stress responses and promote bonding in this process.
Evaluation of Gender Differences
Some research challenges these findings. De Ridder (2000) found that gender differences disappear when coping is measured in real time.
The distinction between coping strategies is unclear, as some behaviours can be both problem-focused and emotion-focused.
Differences may reflect the types of stressors experienced rather than biological differences.
The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress
Types of Social Support
Instrumental support involves practical help, such as providing resources.
Emotional support involves offering empathy and reassurance.
Esteem support involves boosting confidence.
Cohen et al. (2015) found that higher levels of social support reduced the likelihood of illness under stress.
Evaluation of Social Support
Fawzy et al. (1993) found that social support improved survival rates in cancer patients.
Gender differences exist, with women more likely to use emotional support and men more likely to use instrumental support, as shown by Luckow et al. (1998).
However, social support can sometimes be ineffective or perceived as unhelpful.
It may also be less important than individual differences such as hardiness in determining how people cope with stress.
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